Text: 'Cinematography: Theory and Practice'

In 'Cinematography: Theory and Practice', Blain Brown provides useful information about a broad range of cinematography-related topics, from types of shot to colour temperature and standard procedure for coverage on set. Below I have summarized the most useful points raised in the book:

SHOTS AND COVERAGE

• Wide shot - encompasses the entire scene, no matter how big or small the space is
• It is important to establish the geography of the scene, which is different from establishing the place in an establishing shot. The audience needs to know where objects are in relation to each other, but sometimes withholding this information or changing it can confuse or trick audiences.
• Establishing shots can be quite effective but they are a stop in the dramatic story - blend them in with story elements where possible.
• Convey location information in combination with a piece of the story or something that conveys a visual idea.
• Master Scene Method is used by nearly all narrative films. Do not shoot in smaller shots chronologically, as there is more room for continuity errors and problems for the editor. The more coverage, the more creative freedom the editor has to affect pace and/or the POV in the scene.
• Shoot the master shot of the entire scene first and then move to other coverage, such as CUs, OTS, inserts etc.
• Set up an interesting master even though it may only be used once or twice.
• Think about where to begin the scene - you can start in the middle but its not always the best way, as the editor has no control over how to begin or end it.
• With the edit in mind, start on a close-up then move to a master, as it is more interesting.
• Starting with an empty frame and having the characters enter 'may not be the most exciting start to a scene, but it is always safe. The beauty of this is that it gives the editor a choice. Giving the editor options should always be a goal'.
• Whenever possible, let the character enter and exit the frame during a shot - for safety. 
• Don't run many takes of the master, use the time for other shots as the editor will rarely use it.
• Pace the day so that each scene is given an appropriate amount of time, so you are not rushing in later scenes.
• After shooting the 'buy take' of the master, go in for coverage. Start with the widest shots and move in, as this works best for lighting and grips too.
• Don't change setup for close-ups, just 'punch in' - keep the same position but use a telephoto lens.
• Master shot > Two-shot > OTS > Clean singles > Close-ups
• Shoot all coverage on one side and then move to the other.
• Make sure coverage is pre-planned - don't get backed into a corner after shooting the master.
• 'Plan scene' used in TV, pan back and forth between characters as they speak.
• Overlapping method - used when the master cannot be repeated (such as in documentaries), breaking the scene down and overlapping shots to get maximum safe coverage.
• 20% rule - the shot must change by at least 20% to be cuttable - change angle, lens size or camera position to achieve this.
• Eye sweeps - if an offscreen character walks behind the camera, the character in front can follow it with their eyes.

COLOUR THEORY

• Hues directly opposite one another on the colour wheel are called complements. They complete the triad of primary colours

Colour Temperature Table:

• Candle - 2000k
• Sunlight at dawn - 2000k
• Low-watt tungsten bulb - 2900k
• Tungsten halogen bulb - 3200k
• Photo bulbs - 3400k
• Morning/afternoon sun - 4400k
• Midday sun - 5500k 
• HMIs - 5600-6500k
• Midday sunlight + skylight - 6500k
• Cloudy sky - 6800k
• Clear blue sky - 10000k+

SHOOTING ROLES

• Director: decides what shots are needed, where the camera is placed, the FOV and sometimes lens. They also specify camera movement, zooms or other effects, asking the DP for ideas and input. Less experienced directors call for camera moves that are time-consuming and ineffective, where there are easier ways of doing it. The director should always bring a complete shot list to the shoot, even if this is usually deviated from.
• The shot list helps to plan the day, and allows for grips and electricians to be sent off to light another location. It also ensures that the production does not wrap without getting all the coverage needed. Script supervisors can also be tasked with keeping a list of 'must have' shots essential to telling the story. 
• A professional DP must be able to work with any type of director, whether they are hands on in deciding the framing or prefer working with the actors and staging whilst the DP frames the shot.

DP's RESPONSIBILITIES

• Decide the look and feel of the lighting
• Communicate with the gaffer and grip, directing and supervising the lighting process
• Coordinating with production designer, wardrobe, makeup and effects people.
• Correct filtration on the camera
• Deciding whether to use a zoom or prime lens
• Conscious of continuity - crossing the line, screen direction etc.
• Ensuring the director has good coverage of the entire scene
• Watching out for physical continuity such as clothing, props, scenery changes etc.
• Ensuring correct F-stop, exposure, shutter speed and resolution

FIRST AC RESPONSIBILITIES

• Ensure the camera operates correctly
• Look for flares and other problems
• Set frame rate, shutter speed and F-stop
• Measure focus distances and control focus
• Control zoom on handle
• Move camera to next setup
• Calling out footage for second AC camera 

SECOND AC RESPONSIBILITIES

• Ensure actors hit their marks
• Responsible for lens changes, filter changes and other equipment being brought over.
• Clapper loader - scene number, take number, day/night, int/ext
• Camera reports: camera number/letter, scene, take, remarks (good/bad/waste etc.)

GRIPS

• Handle C-stands, lighting and shadow control not attached to a light
• Mounting hardware, clamps etc.
• Sandbagging lights
• Leveling, dollies and track laying
• Rigging camera in an unusual spot
• Making scaffolding, platforms etc.

SHOOTING PROCEDURE

1. Lighting is 'roughed in' by general understanding of the director. Production is formalised once they are ready to put the proper lights in.
2. Director describes to DP what shot is wanted first.
3. Director blocks the scene and rehearses
4. Marks are set: focus is measured
5. The AD asks the DP for a time estimate
6. The AD announces that the DP 'has the set'
7. The DP talks to gaffer and grip about what he wants
8. DP supervises the placement of camera/lens, and tells AD when he is ready
9. The director takes over and stages final rehearsal with actors in make-up and wardrobe.
10. DP makes final adjustments for changes in blocking or actions
11. DP meters the scene and determines aperture, then informs the AD
12. Director announces ready for a take after discussion with actors/cam op.
13. 'Last looks' - hair, makeup and wardrobe make sure the actors are ready.
14. Smoke/rain/fire effects set in motion.
15. AD 'roll sound'
16. Sound recordist - 'speed'
17. AD 'roll camera' 
18. 1st AC calls speed and tells 2nd AC to mark it
19. Operator calls 'set' when the camera is ready
20. Director calls action and then cut when done
21. Operator mentions problems and reasons for another take, including any adjustments to make it run smoother.
22. 'Back to one' for another take.