Production: Shooting - Day 2

Today was the second day of production, where we have been shooting a number of scenes in the house.

We arrived early in the morning to dress the set, talk through the day's schedule and set up lighting and camera positions for the first shot. With the camera shooting the characters flat against the wall, we wanted to use the lighting to provide some depth to the scene - utilising also the light coming in through the window.

Referencing our lighting plan we created during pre-production, we set up two Kinos with CTB; one as a key on the characters and another to bounce off the ceiling for a general fill. To fill in some of the shadows on Laurence's face we also used a reflector placed to his right.

For reference we looked to a similar scene from 'Shaun of the Dead' which appears to use largely ambient light with perhaps some negative fill to create contrast. In hindsight we probably could have done more to create a similar contrast and create a darker, dingier atmosphere as seen below.

With today's shoot we were much more aware of getting sufficient coverage for the scene and also approaching it in a more methodical way; shooting all angles from one setup before moving lights, and shooting wide and then working our way into singles, two-shots and other inserts. 

As we will be having the characters watching TV, I used the HDMI cable and my tablet to put a green backdrop on the screen. We made sure to have nothing obstructing the screen in case we had to overlay the video instead, and used matte objects to surround it that didn't reflect the green light. 

On the whole, this worked well, and each shot was marked and logged in a camera report, although the trade-off was that we fell very behind schedule for the day's shoot, and had to rush to get some montage shots upstairs towards the end of the night. Also, there was a lack of direction from Alex and poor communication between him and the cinematographer, as again neither had looked at the shot list. 

Throughout the shoot I was being asked by Alex about which shot or part of scene we were shooting next, as he didn't have a plan prepared. At several points I was also having to direct the actors as he wasn't clear on the script or how some scenes fit together, which should have been raised in pre-production. 

For the next shoot, now after Easter, we will address these issues and also try to find a better balance between time efficiency and a thorough production workflow, ensuring that all members have studied the pre-production materials and are clear on the script.

Production: Shooting - Day 1

Today was the first day of production for 'The Yorkshire Terror', following the past few weeks of pre-production and delays.

Firstly, I spent the morning looking for props to use to dress the set, including some colourful superhero posters and toys to dress the basement. Whilst I looked for props, the rest of the crew set up the equipment at the location and began set dressing for all the scenes in the house and had agreed to block each scene out so that we can start much more quickly tomorrow on the other scenes.

When dressing the set we tried to include as many colourful set elements as we could, not only to make it more visually appealing but to create contrast with the interrogation scene - which we decided would be desaturated and graded to create a cold, harsh aesthetic. Other elements of set design which we included in the interrogation scene were cassette tapes, various wires, documents and a cliché conspiracy board which would be revealed in the lighting change.

Unfortunately, due to how long it took the team to set dress, we were running behind schedule by the time the actor arrived at 5pm. Due to availability, we were only shooting the interrogation scene, and thought this would be enough time to focus on the difficult blocking and lighting change.

With me playing the interrogator, I rehearsed the scene with our actor Lewis a number of times before we started filming. As we had anticipated during rehearsals, the light spilling on to the walls and the harsh shadow thrown by the spotlight was an issue, and took a while to correct by using the barn doors and adjusting exposure on the camera.

In our first setup we filmed the shots I had outlined in the shot list, making sure to get enough coverage. This included a clean close-up of the majority of the scene, an OTS shot including the interrogator (framed so Laurence's eye-line suggests I am much bigger) and inserts of documents being taken out and passed across the table.  Due to time constraints we had to omit some of the more complex shots involving the slider, simply panning across instead.

For the shot when the bag is pulled from Laurence's head, we used a slight lighting change to mimic the adjustment of his eyes to the bright light - bringing down the intensity after a few seconds. Although the effect worked, in hindsight the same effect could have been achieved afterwards in post-production by blowing out the highlights, which again would have saved us time.

Moving to the opposite side, we had to spend a lot of time reconfiguring lighting and exposure to get the silhouetted effect on the interrogator. On reflection, it would have been better to pre-light this shot and set up before the actor arrived, as it took the most time trying to achieve the bright rim and flare from the practical light. To create this effect we used a setup similar to that which I had pre-visualised in virtuallightingstudio:

• Two Dedo lights on stands, both with CTB applied.
• One lamp facing directly on to the protagonist from above the interrogator's shoulder - spotted to reduce spread on to the back drop.
• A second lamp not visible by audience, placed lower, behind my back, and angled to provide an edge on my shoulder. 

When I reviewed the footage afterwards, it was clear that the desk lamp, although flagged, was still bouncing and causing the interrogator's mask and neck to be visible - requiring increased contrast to hide. The rim around the interrogator's head was also too thin and inconsistent across its outline, but this was our only option as using a light on the backdrop would reveal the environment. 

Also, some of the shots on the reverse were very poorly framed; not using the full frame, framing centrally rather than using thirds, and making the interrogator look much smaller in the frame, which is the complete opposite effect we were trying to go for with the cinematography. The position of the light behind my head meant that it was visible whenever I tried to move, which will reduce my options coming to edit.

It was very frustrating to learn that neither the director nor the cinematographer had looked at the shot list I had created for the scene, and it was clear from the footage we took that there was confusion and miscommunication between them both. 

When coming to enact the lighting change, I was clear about which shot this would take place in. Despite this, we filmed the lighting change multiple times from different angles, including from Laurence's POV, which was ultimately pointless. The change itself was very difficult to co-ordinate due to the lag time of the Kinos switching on and the other light switch being upstairs. We started by using a two-step lighting change for when a hall light appears and then the room light is switched on, but as this was too difficult to coordinate we simplified it later in to one.

By the end of the shoot it was so late that we only had time for one take of the character leaving the scene afterwards and grabbing the important items off the table. Upon reviewing, this shot had a jerky motion that makes it unusable, and without insert shots and coverage around the room showing the different elements of the set design, then this is wasted. 

After reviewing all the footage, I found inconsistencies in lighting and positioning of the props between two of the important lighting-change shots, which I feel would not cut together or will just appear jarring. Despite our best efforts, I still found the background set was still visible in the majority of the shots of Laurence, which, although may be fixable in post-production, may cause further problems for the final grade.

Overall, despite maintaining a professional workflow I am disappointed with how the first day of shooting has gone, and the lack of preparation has clearly caused issues for the footage. As a result, there is not enough usable coverage to assemble the entire scene, and that which is still has issues of framing and lighting. 

Although we are at an early stage I would strongly advise to re-shoot the scene with these issues in mind, perhaps simplifying the lighting change even further and using our time more efficiently to get enough coverage.

Video Essay: How to do Visual Comedy

In this video essay, Tony Zhou identifies how director Edgar Wright, (Hot Fuzz, Shaun of the Dead, Paul) creates visual comedy through his use shot type, composition, sound design and editing. As we are creating a comedy film with similar characters to those that feature in Wright's films, and we are aiming similarly to create comedy through editing and visual juxtaposition, the video is appropriate and useful for my research. Below I have summarized the main points he raises:

• American comedies in particular are not using the full potential of visuals and sound to deliver jokes - all jokes are delivered through dialogue, not visuals. 'They are lightly disguised improv... everyone just stands still and talks at each other in close-up'
• Edgar Wright finds the comedy in the simplest actions such as transitions from one location to another.
• Easy option to use generic music, screen moves from right to left and have obvious landmarks.
• Fast cut sequence in 'Hot Fuzz' (Edgar Wright, 2007) contains narrative meaning in the shots.

1. Taxi shots show where he has come from and where he is going.

2. Shots of phone signal dropping show the move away from civilisation

3. Main character is always facing forward or to the right so screen direction is respected.

• Can get a laugh just through staging or through a camera movement: zoom, crane up or pan. 
• 'Cinema is a matter of whats in the frame and not in the frame' - Scorsese.
• Edgar Wright makes use of funniness of things entering/leaving the frame, dramatic lighting cues, matching scene transitions and well-timed sound effects. 

In this video Wright explains his choices for using close-ups in his films, with stemmed from a parody of the 'tooling-up' montages from generic action films. 

• 'In Hot Fuzz, the idea was to subvert that by taking the most boring parts of police work like paperwork and making it super-stylized... approaching it in the way that Michael Bay or Tony Scott would'

• 'When there are transitions, its a way of you being in control of the rhythm... the scenes all have beginnings middles and ends.'
• Wright would actually black out the sets at the ends of some scenes to confirm that it is the final shot of line of dialogue, 'like a theatrical blackout.'
• 'My first film... I never got enough coverage for it. I never shot enough that I could cut away to so I couldn't control the pace. So I'm always looking at different ways to keep the pace in films, and close-ups are a good way of doing that. It forces the edits of stuff that you'd cut out anyway.'
• 'Always the shots that would fall off the schedule would be close-ups. I would spend an hour during call and during my lunch hour shooting close-ups, so that's about 6 shots per day'

Pre-Production: Equipment, Shot Lists and Rehearsal

Now in the final stages of pre-production, we have been producing equipment and shot lists as well as gathering props for the film.

Equipment

List of equipment

Based on the script and the lighting plans we had made for each scene and environment in the house, we drafted a list of equipment.

We will be shooting on the 5D Mk III using the neutral picture style outlined in the book 'DSLR Cinema' - giving me the most room for grading and correction in the edit. As we will likely need to add ISO in the basement, we will also use the native ISO values outlined in that book,

Although we would be shooting on the 5D Mk III for the vast majority of the film, we have chosen to use the Canon XF305 for the shots which are supposed to have been filmed through an old tape camera.

The flat picture and large depth of field on the camera is much closer to the quality of a video camera over using a DSLR, and the longer zoom and image stabilization will be very useful as we track the monster through the woods in the Grindleford scene. In addition, the deep DOF will be essential for the sequence shot requiring lots of movement and changing camera angles.

As we will be filming in low-light conditions in the basement, using only a couple of spotted lights on the protagonist, we made sure to get the fastest lenses available, minimising noise from added ISO. We are also taking out a Magic arm in case the space is too cramped to place a light stand and we need a light mounted elsewhere.

The material used for the desk in the interrogation scene could potentially cause problems as it is shiny on one side and white on the other. The practical desk lamp on the table will reflect onto the face of the interrogator and make it difficult to mask his face.

To prevent this we have booked out sheets of black wrap and a flag, which we will hopefully be able to use to block out the light to his torso and face.

For the lighting change downstairs we have specified two Kino Flos with daylight bulbs, as this most closely resembles the existing light in the room. This will be important as the lighting change needs to be co-ordinated carefully and the light provided consistent throughout the room, as though it is being provided by the small practical light we see on the wall.

Props and Rehearsal

We had been aiming to film this week, but due to the clashing availability of actors we have post-poned it to during Easter next week. Instead we have been using the time to carry out further pre-production, buying props and taking equipment to the location to rehearse blocking and the lighting change.

We placed the desk at an angle in the room to create visual depth, but also separate the character from the background. This was important as we wanted to eliminate harsh shadows or any lighting spill on the rear wall which would also reveal elements of the set design we need to hide. However, it still took us a few different setups to get this right, changing the angle and height of the light as well as adjusting exposure on the camera.

With us as stand-ins for the actors, we tried different lighting arrangements to get the look we wanted. We used two Dedos placed behind the interrogator, one practical facing directly into the face of the character, and another, slightly lower, angled over the shoulder of the interrogator to create an edge light. Together, this achieved the silhouetted look of the interrogator, and by flagging off the desk lamp with black wrap we avoided light spilling on to his face.

For the lighting change we needed to fill the room, so we used a Kinoflo aimed at the ceiling to spread it evenly, acting as though coming from the room's light. We tested the lighting change also, turning on both the Kino and the room's light simultaneously to expose the interrogator. After this we went around the house and roughly blocked out each scene, taking stills with the camera to suggest angles.

Shot Lists

As some of the scenes in the script required a specific sequence of shots to achieve, I opted to complete some of the shot lists. For example, the first scene in Grindleford needed to be shot so that the screen of the video camera is hidden when the characters review what they have shot, as we would be shooting that scene using the XF305.

I first read through the script and noted down my initial ideas for covering the scene, which was then put into a template and formalised with location information, a description of the shot, a scene number and an abbreviated shot type.

The description was particularly useful for the news reporter sequence shot as, taking advice from my research, we have broken it down into other shots and camera movements, using the lines as a cue.

I was frustrated that neither the director nor the cinematographer made much effort to create or be involved in the making of the shot list, as these are the two roles to which it is most important. In hindsight we also should have taken the planning further and ordered the shooting plan into scene locations and setups, ensuring we are as efficient with our time on set as possible.

With the final stages of pre-production completed, a shooting schedule in place and breakdowns for each scene, we are ready to begin production next week, starting first with the interrogation scene.

Text: 'DSLR Cinema: Crafting the Film Look with Video'

In this book Kurt Lancaster uses a number of short film examples to explain how to achieve a cinematic look using a DSLR, covering everything from pre-production and story development through to post-production, sound design and colour grading. The cinematography information is especially relevant as the most referenced camera for tips and recommended settings is the Canon 5D Mark II, and we will be using the Canon 5D Mark III for our film. Below I have summarized the most relevant information from the book:

• All character movements and blocking need to be motivated and grounded in the story or they will appear weak.
• Camera movement and blocking are intrinsically tied together, and must reflect the emotion of the scene.
• Make a shot list of shots needed to tell the story and the emotional shift within it. Consider eyelines at the stage and shots that you can condense into one movement for better efficiency.
• When deciding between using hand-held or static camera, let the story determine the emotion and understand the effect each has on your audience.
• Key lighting can be placed in a number of different positions for different effects: side, back, 3/4 rear, front etc.
• Change the colour temperature throughout the day - get the in-camera look to as close as possible because colour space is compressed and limiting. Morning = 3400k. Midday = 5200-5500k. Sunset ~3400k
• Don't use the LCD screen to expose - use the exposure metering system on screen to get a more accurate result.
• Best settings for reduced noise levels on 5D Mark II are ISO 160, 320, 640, 800 and 1250.
• DSLR Picture styles - shoot flat, faithful or neutral, to give as much options as possible for colour correction/grading afterwards. Recommended settings for 5D Mark II:  Sharpness 0, Saturation -1, Contrast 0 and Colour Tone 0.

Video Channel: Film Riot

The videos on this channel are very useful for low-budget and DIY film-making, sharing tips, advice, techniques and explaining important camera/lighting concepts. Below I have selected a number of the most appropriate videos for cinematography, and summarized the main points in the video:

Grip Gear

• Gaff tape
• Safety cable for lights
• Extension cords
• Rope
• Wire
• C47s for clipping gels to barndoors
• Sandbags for weighing down lights
• Black wrap to prevent spill on lights
• Different types of clamps for rigging lights

Basic Cinematography - Lighting Day/Night

• Practical - light you can see inside the shot; headlight, lamp, streetlight etc.
• Walk into a location, turn on one light and build from there
• Motivation for the light - logical explanation for the light (although this is often broken)
• Night scenes - Kino-Flo light hitting window outside for moonlit effect
• Separate subject from background, longer focal distance for bokeh and no light spill
• Fill light added to ceiling to light the room, separate actor from background
• Added second practical to scene, separate from background and use fill light to boost
• Turn subject away to create different effects, more angled = less connection with character
• 'How much you add or take away fill light from a day scene will say something about the time of day or type of day it is'
• Low fill = gloomy, dawn/dusk - High fill = sunny day.

How to Light for Darkness

• First change - faster lens.
• Bouncing off the ceiling not appropriate - clearly toplit which is not motivated. Light would be spill from another room, under a door/window etc.
• Bounce off the wall at eye-level and adjust angle instead.
• Can add blue fill light as though moonlight from window.
• Bouncing light from different angles has completely different effects
• Can do it in post with more light, but more video look.

The Meaning Behind Camera Movement

• Tracking alongside characters - move to a tripod panning as they walk and could suggest being watched, or that 'their conversation holds something secret'
• Tracking hand-held has different effect - more intense or relaxed?
• 'An inappropriately chosen shot can mean death to your scene'
• Gib can be used to add verticality to shots, introduce locations or move from high to low angle on a character to create sense of power/vulnerability
• Action films - keep camera moving in each shot to infuse kinetic energy and maintain it throughout. Can also use it to create a pause in the tension/action for comedic effect.
• Easy fix for diffusing large light - bedsheet. Easy fix for eye-light - torch near the camera. Balances out even harsh contrasts

Camera Techniques

• Low angle - power. High angle - vulnerability
• Directly overhead - disconnects audience, omniscience, overview of scene.
• Canted angle - slightly off, disconcerts the audience.
• Distance from characters in dialogue scene creates connection with audience. Closer = more connected, wider = disconnected.
• Can use foreground objects to an extreme to suggest character hiding something or feeling trapped because of lack of visual space.
• Long shot = loneliness, abandoned.
• Longer lens = shorter DOF, more claustrophobic feel.
• Shorter lens = wider DOF, opens up world.
• Slow zoom for dramatic emphasis.
• DOF - force audience to focus on part of the scene.

F-stop, Shutter Speed and ISO

• Fast shutter speed = crisp motion. Slow shutter speed = smooth motion.
• ISO sweet spots for Canon 5D MkIII - 160, 320, 640, 1250 = least noise.

Shane Hurlbut on Cinematography

• Pick a camera and lighting emotion for each character.
• Working with a director - come in with a point of view. Show references, still photography etc. Understand the shooting style of the director, how they want to get coverage. Describe camera movement, lighting and colour for each scene beforehand, communicate with set designers. Get all the departments aligned to making the same film.

Breaking Up and Diffusing Light

• 'Booklight' technique - diffuse already softened light by placing diffusion after the bounce board.
• Negative fill to stop fill from walls - add contrast.
• Hard/soft cookies - shapes to shine light through. Hard = opaque object with area cut out. Soft = translucent object with cutout areas, diffused light. 
• Move light up and down to simulate car movement?
• Add any objects in front of the light diffused enough, breaks up the light - useful for interviews.

Text: 'Cinematography' by Kris Malkiewicz

In Chapter 4 of this book, Malkiewicz covers different types of lighting for film, describing their function, different lighting styles and also the order in which to set them up. The illustration of how to lit a very low-key scene will be useful for our shoot as we will be filming in a dark environment entirely lit by practicals and our lighting. Below I have summarized his main points:

• There are three distinct aspects of lighting: hardness/softness, the angle of the 'throw' (the path that the light follows) and the colour of the light.
• Hard light: directly from the bulb to the subject with only a lens, yielding sharp, defined shadows.
• Soft light: bounced off a diffusing surface or through a translucent substance, creating weaker, less sharp shadows. The diffusing surface acts as 'a multitude of sources, washing out the others' shadows'.
• The angle of the light will suggest time of day and type of location, as well as bringing out shape and texture (or deliberately not doing this depending on the narrative context)
• The three most pronounced lighting styles are high key, low key and graduated tonality.
• High key - It is a generally bright scene, the sets and costume colours are light tones and there is soft, diffused illumination with few shadows.
• Low key - few areas of the frame are well lit, and there are many deep shadows. The image not just underexposed, but it is the ratio of dark shadows to lit areas that creates low key. Darker sets and costumes also contribute to this as well.
• Graduated tonality - soft light evenly illuminating the scene with weak shadows.
• The key light is the main source of light for a character in a certain place in the scene. Traditionally this is placed 45 degrees from the camera and 45 degrees off the floor, but this is usually elsewhere. If the character is looking off screen then it should be placed to the other side of his line of sight, giving 3-dimensionality to the image.
• Fill light - fills in the shadows created by the key light. Should not create additional shadows so should come from near the camera.
• Back light - separates actors from the background, adding 3-dimensionality. This is placed above and behind the actor, illuminating top of the shoulders and the head.
• Kicker - 3/4 back position opposite the key light, placed lower to the floor.
• Effects lights fulfil a number of different specific purposes. A clothes light brings up a texture on a costume, an eye light mounted on the camera fills in eye sockets and creates a sparkle, set lights illuminate walls and furniture, practical lamps are visible as part of the scene and backdrop lights are used to light painted/matte backdrops in sets outside windows or doorways.
• Light the scene with stand-ins first. Start with key lights, then fill lights, back lights and kickers. 
• Generally follow the natural light sources in the scene - windows, practical lamps, candles, fireplaces etc. The general direction for the key light comes from the window.
• Pracitcal lamps look best 2-4 stops brighter than the face, use a dimmer to get it to the right level.
• Example scene: Two characters sat at a small table lit by a single candle. Fresnel directly above the candle for a circle of light on the table. Two key lights crossing either side in the face of both characters, angled using barn doors to keep off the other characters' face. No back light or fill.

Research: The Sequence Shot

In preparation for production I have been researching sequence shots/long takes in films and how they are constructed, lit and choreographed. Sequence shots are a lauded, technically demanding and effective way of allowing an audience to become absorbed in the tension, flow and atmosphere of a scene, as well as sometimes being the most practical method of getting coverage efficiently during production.

Long takes are often used to create a seamless movement between and around large sets, creating an environment that feels living and breathing, and real for the audience - such as in the case of 'Paths of Glory' (Stanley Kubrick, 1957) and 'Atonement' (Joe Wright, 2007).

It can also be used to create suspense when combined with POV, such as in the opening shot of 'Touch of Evil' (Orson Welles, 1958) to build dramatic tension, and in the opening of 'Gravity' (Alfonso Cuaron, 2012) to align the audience with the protagonist's experiences. 

 In this video essay, Tony Zhou looks at the work of one particular director, Steven Spielberg, and his approach to shooting long takes which are largely imperceptible in his films.

Below I have listed the main points Tony raises:

• Spielberg uses long takes often but unlike other directors his goal is to remain invisible
• The optimum length he uses for long takes is between 1-2 minutes. This is described as long enough to cover an entire scene but short enough to maintain the pace of the overall film.
• Other directors have a dominant formal technique in their long takes; Wes Anderson often moves laterally to maintain his 'doll house' effect of the worlds he creates, Alfonso Cuaron uses a hand-held documentary style to follow the action whereas David Fincher removes all sense of personality from the shot and moves robotically between each element. However Spielberg does not have one dominant technique other than not drawing attention to his shots

Moonrise Kingdom - lateral long take

Children of Men - hand-held documentary style

Panic Room - robotic, computerised movement

• The drinking contest scene in 'Raiders of the Lost Ark' (Steven Spielberg, 1981) is a long take but with four different shots combined into one. A push-in to establish the scene, an insert of the glasses in the middle and two matching singles of each character. 'Simple, elegant and probably saved a lot of time on set.' It also works for the scene as there's a build of suspense.

Combining shots for efficiency and to maintain suspense

• The lift scene in 'Minority Report' (Steven Spielberg, 2002) is another good example of hiding a long take, with each movement of the camera being motivated, following the motion or the action and also strong blocking which switches the power between the characters immediately. The movement of the camera feels real rather than a 'cameraman hitting his marks'.

Using blocking to switch the power in the scene

• Long takes, when blocked well, can breathe life into a scene containing talking or exposition such as in the ferry scene from 'Jaws' (Spielberg, 1975). The camera stays completely static and all the movement is in the blocking of the actors and the moving background, keeping the pace even whilst just talking.

Creating dynamic blocking and background to maintain pace

• With the state of filmmaking at the moment, one branch of directors are cutting faster and faster whereas the other is drawing out their takes for maximum effect and technical feats.

Main tips for sequence shots:

1. Move actors around, don't have them standing and talking. Allows for more shot variety as well.
2. Follow the actors' movement and place the camera accordingly, avoid feeling of hitting marks.
3. Break the scene down into smaller compositions and angles - link different shots into a single moving master, thinking in terms of OTS, singles, wide etc.
4. Shoot a cutaway to give the ability to swap out a take or tighten the edit if desired.

In his book 'The Filmmaker's Eye' Gustavo Mercado also offers a number of tips for shooting sequence shots. 

• For a sequence shot, combine a number of different shots in a dynamic frame - from extreme close-up to extreme long. The movement of the camera is mainly motivated by characters although not always. Sequence shots can add realism, tension and dramatic emphasis to a scene because they are happening in real time.
• For a sequence shot, the field of view needs to be considered at every stage of the shot. The technical requirements of the shot can often override the desire for particular focal lengths. For example, it would be very difficult and impractical to shoot with a telephoto and a shallow DOF.
• If shooting at night, use practicals (visible light sources) or have a crew member travelling alongside with a lamp. Often it is extremely hard to light sequence shots throughout so decide the key moments to choreograph and light accordingly

When coming to plan our long take I will try to consider all these elements, particularly breaking down the shot into smaller compositions to keep the frame dynamic whilst the characters may be largely still. 

Text: 'The Filmmaker's Eye'

In this book, Gustavo Mercado explains a number of basic rules, principles and conventions for cinematic composition, including framing, depth and how to create meaning through these devices. He also describes the different type of lenses, their functions, limitations and effects, and describes each type of shot - of which the sequence shot will be most relevant to our film. Below I have summarised his main points:

• 'It is important to create compositions that reflect meaningful aspects of the story, not to have a disconnect between the shots and their function within the story (i.e. because it looks cool).
• If you create a visually dense scene, the audience will miss any details within the composition that are important. They will apply equal importance to each element even if they are unintended (i.e. posters in the frame)
• 'Anything and everything that is included in the composition of a shot will be interpreted as being there for a specific purpose that is directly related and necessary to understand the story they are watching'.
• Need to think about story in a cinematic way - shot composition that visually emphasizes significant plot details as well as themes, motifs and core ideas.
• 'Include only what is absolutely necessary in the frame to get the point being conveyed by the director'
• 'Because so much of the meaning of a shot is derived by the context in which it is presented, it is possible to subvert the commonly associated connotations of certain shots.'
• The Z axis (depth) in shots can be exaggerated to create deep frames, or reduced to create a sense of detachment and entrapment within the storyworld.
• Create visual depth and believable 3D space by placing objects along Z Axis - partially covering or overlapping objects.
• Rule of thirds - put eyes over top left or right line depending which way they're facing.
• Hitchcock: 'The size of an object in the frame should be directly related to its importance in the story at that moment'.
• Balanced compositions convey order, uniformity and predetermination. Unbalanced compositions convey chaos, uneasiness and tension (depending on narrative context).
• Low-angle conveys confidence, power and control, whereas high-angle suggest weakness, passiveness and powerlessness.
• Do not frame too high or too low - a minor adjustment of camera placement will make an impression and not distract.
• Create strong focal points by selecting what is excluded from the frame, what is in focus, what is lit and what is visually dominating the frame.
• Closed frames/open frames - Closed doesn't need off-screen space to convey narrative meaning, but open frames imply something in the off-screen space.
• Lenses that reproduce what the eye sees are 'normal' - any shorter they are wide angle, any longer they are telephoto.
• Wide angle lenses exaggerate movement across the Z axis.
• Normal lenses are used for close-ups as they don't distort or exaggerate movement.
• Telephoto brings subject closer to the foreground, compressing space and movement. They also flatten facial features so are not preferred for close-ups.
• 'Fast' and slow' lenses. Fast = 1.4/1.8f, whereas slow = 2.8f. Zoom lenses are slower than prime lenses.
• Prime lenses are preferred because they provide better contrast, colour and resolution. They also have a shorter minimum focal distance.
• Tilt shift lens - allows for out of focus on the same plane.
• Split field diopter - both subjects at different distances in focus.
• Depth of field is a visually expressive tool  - control by choosing placement of the camera, using a wide/telephoto lens and using a different aperture.
• Create shallow DOF on a sunny day by using a wide aperture or neutral density filter (NDF)
• For a sequence shot, combine a number of different shots in a dynamic frame - from extreme close-up to extreme long. The movement of the camera is mainly motivated by characters although not always. Sequence shots can add realism, tension and dramatic emphasis to a scene because they are happening in real time.
• For a sequence shot, the field of view needs to be considered at every stage of the shot. The technical requirements of the shot can often override the desire for particular focal lengths. For example, it would be very difficult and impractical to shoot with a telephoto and a shallow DOF.
• If shooting at night, use practicals (visible light sources) or have a crew member travelling alongside with a lamp. Often it is extremely hard to light sequence shots throughout so decide the key moments to choreograph and light accordingly.